It was expected and socially acceptable for a freeborn Roman man to want sex with both female and male partners, as long as he took the penetrative role.
Allowing himself to be penetrated threatened his liberty as a free citizen as well as his sexual integrity. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, scholars have tended to view expressions of Roman male sexuality in terms of a "penetrator-penetrated" binary model that is, the proper way for a Roman male to seek sexual gratification was to insert his penis into his partner. Williams has noted, "the prime directive of masculine sexual behavior for Romans".
Roman ideals of masculinity were thus premised on taking an active role that was also, as Craig A. Sexual conquest was a common metaphor for imperialism in Roman discourse, and the " conquest mentality" was part of a "cult of virility" that particularly shaped Roman homosexual practices. Virtus, "valor" as that which made a man most fully a man, was among the active virtues. Roman society was patriarchal (see paterfamilias), and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status. 117–138 AD), his loverĭuring the Republic, a Roman citizen's political liberty ( libertas) was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion, including both corporal punishment and sexual abuse. Statue of Antinous (Delphi), polychrome Parian marble depicting Antinous, made during the reign of Hadrian (r. However, there is scattered evidence - for example, a couple of spells in the Greek Magical Papyri - which attests to the existence of individual women in Roman-ruled provinces in the later Imperial period who fell in love with members of the same sex. Same-sex relations among women are far less documented and, if Roman writers are to be trusted, female homoeroticism may have been very rare, to the point that Ovid, in the Augustine era describes it as "unheard-of".
Although Roman men in general seem to have preferred youths between the ages of 12 and 20 as sexual partners, freeborn male minors were off limits at certain periods in Rome, though professional prostitutes and entertainers might remain sexually available well into adulthood. Acceptable male partners were slaves and former slaves, prostitutes, and entertainers, whose lifestyle placed them in the nebulous social realm of infamia, excluded from the normal protections accorded to a citizen even if they were technically free. Roman men were free to enjoy sex with other males without a perceived loss of masculinity or social status, as long as they took the dominant or penetrative role. The conquest mentality and "cult of virility" shaped same-sex relations. "Virtue" ( virtus) was seen as an active quality through which a man ( vir) defined himself. Roman society was patriarchal, and the freeborn male citizen possessed political liberty ( libertas) and the right to rule both himself and his household ( familia). The primary dichotomy of ancient Roman sexuality was active/ dominant/masculine and passive/submissive/feminine.
Latin lacks words that would precisely translate " homosexual" and " heterosexual". Homosexuality in ancient Rome often differs markedly from the contemporary West.
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